My journey through language and literacy development has
been quite a learning experience. As an educator and a mother, I thought I knew
most of the information that was available about language and literacy
development. However, as I look back on my own children and various students I
realize I still have much to learn. This research paper on a child’s journey
through development has really enlightened how I thought of language
development and how it pertains to speech and literacy delays. The child that I
chose to follow through this journey is actually my own daughter, who struggles
has been diagnosed with a speech disorder and has a speech IEP that addresses
her many speech issues. As a mother, I often questioned my role in her speech
issues and if I would have done this or said that. However, being able to go
through this journey has allowed me to see areas that are just developmental
delays.
Some specific questions for feedback would be:
·
What areas could I delve more and provide more information?
·
Can I provide more information about her language
development in her toddler years?
·
Should I give more information on how her being
bilingual has affected her speech delay, if any?
·
What areas do you feel need more attention to
details?
·
Any suggestions to improve my research/ paper?
Literacy
Development Journey
Language
is a single dimension of human behavior (Pence Turnbull & Justice, 2012). For
most of the history of language and its development, language has been linked
to one’s cognitive abilities. It has been thought that one’s cognitive
abilities are directly linked to how one understands language. However, how one
acquires language has been debated over the centuries. One thing that is unequivocally
known is that one’s world is never the same after one acquires language. Words
can determine how we see and understand the world, altering our perspectives (Music,
2011). According to Pence Turnbull and
Justice (2012), “Children reach many important milestones the first year on
their journey through language development” (p. 168). Oftentimes, a child’s
environment plays a bigger role in his or her language development than previously
realized. The quality of a child’s interactions and not just the quantity he or
she receives is what matters. In addition, the types of social interactions in
which he or she engages form important early foundations for language
development (Pence Turnbull & Justice, 2012). A child’s home life, family,
environment, socioeconomic status, community, and culture play an important
role in language development and literacy. Throughout this paper, we will
discuss a child’s journey through language development from utero to age 8.
Home
Life and Family
Caleigh is a
healthy 5-year-old girl. She is a caring, loving, and friendly child who enjoys
her family and friends. Caleigh attends a public elementary school and is in pre-k In the early years of life, language really begins to
emerge, and children really start to understand language. Children
develop language in different ways, such as body language and receptive
language. Receptive language is the use of vocabulary to communicate. Body
language refers to non-verbal communication and is expressed through physical
behaviors, such as body movements, gestures, eye contact, and touching. She
likes going to school and enjoys her teachers and friends. She comes from a
middle-class home, her mother is an elementary school teacher, and her father is
a disabled veteran. She is part of a family of four and is the younger of two
children; her brother is six years older. Her parents have been married for 13
years and live together in the home, sharing the parenting responsibilities. Her
family consists of herself; her mother, who is 35 years old; her father, who is
36 years old; and a brother who is 11 years of age. Also, Caleigh’s mother is
bi-racial; she is Korean and Black. The family has two pets, a miniature
schnauzer and a hermit crab. Caleigh does have the responsibility of helping to
care for both pets in the home. She enjoys spending time with her family, and
her favorite game to play with her family is UNO. The family takes many trips,
enjoying places such as Disney World, museums, the aquarium, and the Caribbean.
Mainly, they enjoy simply spending quality time together, whether it is going
to the movies or just relaxing at home. Until recently, the primary caregiver
for Caleigh was her father. He was honorably discharged from the military and
is now a disabled veteran after receiving a heart transplant. He stayed at home
and cared for her before she began pre-kindergarten this year. However, she has
a stronger and closer relationship with her mother.
Caleigh’s
mother had a normal pregnancy with her with the exception of extreme nausea and
vomiting. She was born by caesarean section at 38 weeks. However, her mother
had a difficult pregnancy. She was unable to take pre-natal vitamins or hold
down much food, as she suffered from morning sickness every day and suffered
from daily nausea and vomiting, which caused her to lose 40 pounds. Three
months into her pregnancy, Caleigh’s mother had to have a feeding tube inserted
into her stomach due to her extreme nausea and inability hold down any food.
Understanding Caleigh’s experience during utero is very important because it may
explain any speech or language delays. As noted in Pence Turnbull and Justice, (2012), “Infants are
learning about language even before birth, and are able to recognize voices and
words from their time in the womb” (p. 103).
Community
and Culture
Caleigh lives in an
upper-middle-class neighborhood in Atlanta, Georgia. Her mother is half-Korean.
She is provided with rich experiences from the Korean heritage she shares with
her brother. They also live near a Korean community, where Caleigh is exposed
to her Korean heritage often while shopping and visiting. As noted in Cho
(2015), “Knowing multiple languages broadens the number of people with whom one
can communicate, grants access to supportive networks in the community” (p.31).
The primary language spoken at her home is English, but Korean is also spoken
in the home. She mostly interacts with her mother, who speaks English and
Korean, and with her grandmother, who is Korean. Her grandmother speaks English
and Korean but prefers to communicate with Caleigh in Korean. Caleigh’s mother
believes it is very important that she learn English because they live in a
country whose primary language is English, but believes that learning her
mother’s native language is equally important. According to Cho (2015), “Their study
showed that bilingual children have greater cognitive flexibility than do monolingual
children and that bilingualism promotes academic achievement, which, in turn,
fosters higher academic expectations” (p. 30).
Caleigh
is offered many literacy-rich experiences both inside and outside of the home. Her
mother works with her daily on sight words, numbers, and letter recognition and
sounds. She also receives many language and literacy experiences from her
school environment. Her mother has additionally made connections between English
and Korean words for her to help her understanding, intentionally connecting new
English words to words they understand in Korean to help her to build In the early
years of life, language really begins to emerge, and children really start to
understand language. Children develop language in different
ways, such as body language and receptive language. Receptive language is the
use of vocabulary to communicate. Body language refers to non-verbal
communication and is expressed through physical behaviors, such as body
movements, gestures, eye contact, and touching. Her English vocabulary (Colker,
n.d.). Currently, she receives 30-minute speech therapy sessions through her
school twice a week. Often, when out in the community, her mother reads signs
to her and asks her questions about what she sees. Also, her local library
provides monthly preschool reading activities and programs in which she
participates.
Caleigh’s
mother said she did notice early on that her daughter had an extensive
vocabulary, but her daughter had trouble making letter sounds and saying
certain words outside of what was considered appropriate development. Her
extensive vocabulary can be attributed to her socio-economic status. A child’s
economic background can play a role in his or her vocabulary development. By 3 years
of age, there is a 30-million-word gap between children from the wealthiest families
and the poorest families (Colker, n.d.). Caleigh’s mother immediately became concerned about
her daughter’s speech development and tried to work with her at home, trying to
correct her speech delays. As Caleigh grew older, it became apparent that her speech
delays were growing and becoming more of an issue in her communication with
others. However, her mother did not notice those same delays when she
communicated using the Korean language. According to Pence Turnbull and Justice, (2012), “In the first
years, infants can distinguish among the sounds of all world languages, an
ability that older children and adults lack” (p.158). The phonetic differences
can explain why she had speech and language delays in English but not in Korean.
Eventually,
the delays began to affect her relationships with her family and peers. A once-happy
child began to be shy and withdrawn when she needed to communicate and was not
understood immediately. Her mother also noted that as her frustration grew,
Caleigh would often look to her to translate for her to others. Her mother said
that since her daughter has begun to receive speech therapy, she has noticed
that her daughter’s confidence is growing and her bubbly personality is
returning.
Prenatal and Infancy
Children are
constantly growing and changing. It is important to understand where they fit
on the continuum of development at each stage.
During the prenatal stages, there are certain milestones that a child should
reach before birth and then in infancy. Language development
begins in utero, since children will begin to hear sounds while in the womb.
According to Pence Turnbull and Justice (2012), “Before
infants are ready to speak their first words, they listen attentively to the
sounds around them” (p. 156). The prenatal stages are extremely important to a
baby’s language development. Mothers should be talking to their babies and
allowing them to listen to sounds that they may need to become familiar with
after birth, such as the family pet and how it sounds, a sibling’s voice,
daddy’s voice, and so on. This is an important experience for babies in utero
because they will recognize those sounds once they are born. It is important to
understand that infants develop language before birth, are learning language in
the womb, and are able to recognize sounds and voices from their time in the
womb (Music, 2011). Therefore, it is extremely important that a mother ensures
that her baby meets this milestone.
Also, a mother
should receive proper nutrition and prenatal care while pregnant, making sure
that a child has a pregnancy free from the use of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco.
According to Lewis et al. (2013), “A mother who uses drugs may not provide
adequate language stimulation to her child, in part due to a chaotic,
drug-seeking lifestyle” (p. 1663). Caleigh’s mother indicated that she did not
use drugs, tobacco, or drink alcohol during her pregnancy. However, due to her
illness during pregnancy, she was unable to take prenatal vitamins, which may
have been vital to proper brain development and growth. According
to her mother, Caleigh met milestones during the prenatal stage. Her mother
talked to her frequently and also allowed her family members to talk to her as
well. She frequently read to Caleigh, exposing her to a variety of vocabularies
during her pregnancy. Exposing her to language prior to birth allowed her to
recognize sounds in early infancy and respond to certain sounds and stimuli.
There needs to be
more research to confirm that babies who are exposed to auditory stimuli in
utero are more reactive to auditory stimuli after birth compared to babies who
were not exposed to language in utero (Lewis et al., 2013). Caleigh experienced
a very loving and nurturing prenatal environment, which prepared her for her
infancy stage of language development. Although it is important to hear sounds
in the womb, babies’ ability to distinguish between sounds greatly diminishes
during the first year of life. Therefore, the transition to reaching the
milestones of the infancy stage of language development is crucial to avoid
developmental language delays. Meeting the milestones in the prenatal stage
helped Caleigh transition to proper language development during the infancy
stage.
According to
Tsao, Lui, and Kuhl (2004):
Language development is one of the major achievements of
infancy and early childhood. The milestones of linguistic achievement have been
documented across cultures and suggest that infants follow a set of universal
stages both in speech production and speech perception. (p. 1067)
In the early years of life, language
really begins to emerge, and children really start to understand language. Children
develop language in different ways, such as body
language and receptive language. Receptive
language is the use of vocabulary to communicate. Body language refers to
non-verbal communication and is expressed through physical behaviors, such as
body movements, gestures, eye contact, and touching.
What are some
major milestones that occur during the infancy stage? Infants experience a progression
from cooing (one to four months), to babbling (five to ten months), to
meaningful speech (10 to 18 months; Tsao et al., 2004). Throughout this stage,
caregivers offer infant direct speech
(IDS), also referred to as baby talk, which is the manner of speech outside
linguistic information with high overall pitch, exaggerated pitch contours, and
slower tempos (Pence Turnbull & Justice, 2012).
During the first
months of life, from birth to about four months, babies will begin cooing. In
this phase, babies value and need interpersonal interactions. They value more
social interactions with caregivers and look to people’s faces to communicate.
Caleigh cooed at the appropriate stage during infancy and often engaged in
social interactions with her caregivers. She often responded to adult’s smiles
and laughs and would respond by smiling or laughing. There is a connection
between infants’ early speech-perception abilities and their later abilities to
acquire language (Tsao et al., 2004). Social exchange is extremely important
during this stage of development and as they move to the next phase (i.e.,
babbling), as they look to caregivers for appropriate engagements and
responses. Babies use social interactions to understand and begin to acquire
language and begin to attempt to communicate with other people (Pence Turnbull
& Justice, 2012).
As babies move
into the next phase, five months to one year after birth, their language
development expands and grows tremendously. During these stages, babies begin
to babble, form meaningful speech—such as “dada” and “mama”—make connections,
and manipulate objects around them. Caleigh started to babble at around five
months. She often babbled for long periods of time, when people were present in
the room, or when she was alone in her crib. Her mother often engaged in caregiver responsiveness, which is how a
caregiver responds and gives attention during babies’ communicative attempts.
Caregiver responsiveness plays a large role in early language development (Pence
Turnbull & Justice, 2012). As noted in Pence Turnbull and Justice, (2012),
“More responsiveness maternal language input is linked—even more so than
infants’ own communicative behaviors, such as vocalization—to the time at which
infants reach important milestones” (p. 175). Caleigh’s mother often engaged in
face-to-face engagement when talking to Caleigh. She also used a technique
called expanding and extending, which
is when a parent expands by repeating their children’s words and using correct
grammar or adds another idea (Pence Turnbull & Justice, 2012). As Caleigh
began to utter “mama,” her mother would repeat it and say, “Mommy.” She often
read to Caleigh during this time as well, which is called joint attention. Joint attention is when a caregiver gives mental
focus to a single external object (Pence Turnbull & Justice, 2012). By
reading to Caleigh, not only did it allow her to make the connection between a
word and an object but also allowed for expanded vocabulary.
As
early educators or caregivers, our interactions with children are vital to
their development and growth, especially in the early stages of life. The first
year of an infant’s life is a critical time for laying the foundation for the
child’s future development (Parfitt, Pike, & Ayers, 2014). As they grow and discover the world, we are there to
help to guide them through the new world and encourage positive interactions. Parents
and caregivers can help children to get off to a good start and establish
healthy patterns for lifelong learning (Zero to Three, 2014). It is important
that children are meeting milestones in all areas—physical, social, emotional,
and/or cognitive development—and not just language acquisition.
Children reach various
developmental milestones across multiple domains starting from infancy. It is
important to understand that the domains interact in an important
way so that achievement in one area results in a growth in another area (Shulman, 2010). Caleigh
was not a very social baby and often wanted her mother’s attention and care.
She rarely interacted with other adults and would cry when not near her mother.
This could have impacted her language development by not allowing her to
receive social interactions from other adults. However, she did interact with
other infants and often played well with them. She met all of her physical
milestones and had no issues with growth. Her mother did begin to notice that
her speech development was not aligned with her peers’; even after corrections,
she still made errors. Although her social development is beginning to emerge,
it is not overlapping with her language development.
Toddlers
Toddlerhood, or
the period between about ages one and three years, is a time of exploration for
children (Pence
Turnbull & Justice, 2012). During this
stage, toddlers begin to gain more mobility and develop more language. They begin
to understand language and identify letters and letter sounds during this stage
of development. During this period, children begin to increase their
vocabularies by 200 words a month (Schwartz, 2014). This is a time in
children’s lives in which they transition from nonverbal language to more
formal verbal language. Caleigh did not meet all of her language milestones as
a toddler. According to Pence
Turnbull and Justice (2012), “at 28 months of age children should pronounce
about 70% of all words intelligibly and demonstrate phonological processes (e.g.,
final consonant omission, and substitution of consonants)” (p. x). At this
stage, Caleigh was pronouncing 60% of her words incorrectly. She would often
leave off letter sounds or use incorrect sounds. However, she did use
referential gestures, such as waving to say bye-bye. Toddlers use gestures to
fill in gaps before they develop the competence to combine words, but they
later allow their words to dominate when they can combine them successfully
(Pence Turnbull & Justice, 2012).
Caleigh’s physical, social, emotional, and cognitive development
were age appropriate. During
this stage, toddlers begin to understand how to form social relationships with
peers and adults. In the toddler years, children begin to
develop an understanding of the responses, communication, emotional expressions,
and actions of other people (California Department of Education, 2015b). Caleigh was able form good relationships with her mother and
siblings and had no problem building these healthy relationships. Physical
development is also known as motor behavior, which describes all movements of
the body, including those of the eyes (as in the gaze) and the infant’s control
of the head
(California Department of Education, 2015a). There are two types of physical
development: gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Fine motor development is attained through touching, grasping, and
manual manipulation, which allow infants to experience a sense of agency and
learn about the features of people, objects, and the environment (California Department
of Education, 2015a).
Caleigh had met
her milestones in terms of physical development and was able to walk, grab,
touch, crawl, and stand. It is important that these domains of development are
met because they affect other areas of development, such as language
acquisition. One domain depends on the other domains to develop properly. In
order for a Caleigh to write her name, she must first understand how to form
letters and then hold a pen to form the letters on paper. As toddlers grow, they begin to understand not just spoken and
nonverbal language, but written language as well. For example, it is important
to build upon toddlers’ language development. They can make connections by not only
writing the letters down but also identifying and forming them. Toddlers reach various developmental
milestones across multiple domains, starting from birth. It is important to
understand that the domains interact in important ways so that achievement in
one area results in growth in another area (Shulman, 2010). Children do not develop skills in isolation; rather,
they learn things simultaneously.
Family and the environments that
children grow up in help to shape their language development and how they learn
to communicate verbally at this stage. According to Fox (1999),
“Language
is deeply rooted in family and cultural identity. Even at a very early age the
child needs to identify with his family and have a sense of belonging within a
family and cultural group. Language helps to fill that need” (p. 4).
Again,
because Caleigh’s mother and grandmother are bilingual, she was often exposed
to two different languages on a daily basis. Her mother believed that this
exposure to Korean and English affected Caleigh’s language acquisition and
development. Caleigh’s mother noticed that she was having issues with
pronouncing certain words in both languages, and this did not improve even
after correction. Her mother believed that the phonological differences in the
languages were confusing her and thus affected her speech development. Also,
Caleigh’s Korean speaking grandmother was her caregiver at this time. Also, her
mother does not speak English fluently and often confuses words herself, which
may have contributed to Caleigh’s delays. While in her grandmother’s care,
Caleigh often watched Korean cartoons and listened to Korean TV shows that her
grandmother was watching. Her grandmother often spoke to her in Korean and
would mix English in from time to time. Although her primary language spoken in
the home was English, the different languages being spoken daily may have influenced
her current speech issues. Caleigh was in her grandmother’s care for the first two
years of her life. At two and a half years of age, Caleigh entered into a half-day
preschool. The preschool period appears to be frequently associated with the
onset of children’s education experience (Schwartz,
2014).
Preschool
is the first time many children are exposed to language and vocabulary in a
formal education setting in new and enriching ways. According to Schwartz
(2014), “Language development instruction enhances content learning because
students learn ways to express ideas, have language support to participate in
discussion, negotiate conceptual meanings, and build confidence to be part of a
community of learners” (p. 710). Caleigh’s teacher became immediately concerned
about her speech issues. The teacher was not always able to understand what she
was saying. Caleigh’s mother took her to their pediatrician, and he attributed
it to her maybe having a speech delay, though she was too young for him to say for
certain.
Caleigh
had excellent relationships with her caregivers, and they can use various
strategies to help with her speech issues. For example, parents can use a
technique called “Respond and Take Turns—Be an
Interactive Language Partner.” Through their interactions with infants or
toddlers, parents help their children learn to use language to communicate (Strategies to Encourage Language Learning, n.d.). Using this
strategy can be effective because it allows children to take turns and
caregivers to model appropriate responses. Another strategy is to talk often
with the child using a rich and varied vocabulary (Strategies to
Encourage Language Learning, n.d.). Parents can use simple things to help
encourage language development, such as watching Mommy getting a snack. The
mother can grab the snack, show it to the child, and repeat the word snack. Research
shows that the number and quality of the conversations that adults have with
infants and toddlers directly affects how they learn to talk (Strategies to Encourage Language Learning, n.d.).
